The Imitation of Christ, usually attributed to the German Thomas à Kempis, is sometimes credited to the Dutch Gerhard Groote (1340–84); written in Latin, it has gone through more than 6,000 editions in about 100 languages. Outstanding Dutch humanists were Wessel Gansfort (1420?–89), precursor of the Reformation; Rodolphus Agricola (Roelof Huysman, 1443–85); and the greatest of Renaissance humanists, Desiderius Erasmus (Gerhard Gerhards, 1466?–1536). Baruch (Benedict de) Spinoza (1632–77), the influential pantheistic philosopher, was born in Amsterdam.

The composers Jacob Obrecht (1453–1505) and Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621) were renowned throughout Europe; later composers of more local importance were Julius Röntgen (1855–1932), Alfons Diepenbrock (1862–1921), and Cornelis Dopper (1870–1939). Bernard van Dieren (1887–1936), a composer of highly complex music of distinct individuality, settled in London. Henk Badings (b. Bandung, Java, 1907–87) is a prolific composer of international repute. Outstanding conductors of the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra include Willem Mengelberg (1871–1951), Eduard van Beinum (1901–59), and Bernard Haitink (b.1929), who also was principal conductor of the London Philharmonic from 1967 to 1979.

Hieronymus Bosch van Aken (1450?–1516) was a famous painter. Dutch painting reached its greatest heights in the 17th century, when Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69) and Jan Vermeer (1632–75) painted their masterpieces. Other great painters of the period were Frans Hals (1580–1666), Jan Steen (1626–69), Jacob van Ruisdael (1628–82), and Meindert Hobbema (1638–1709). Two more recent painters, Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) and Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), represent two widely divergent artistic styles and attitudes. Maurits C. Escher (1898–1972) was a skilled and imaginative graphic artist.

Hugo Grotius (Huig de Groot, 1583–1645), often regarded as the founder of international law, is famous for his great book On the Law of War and Peace. The outstanding figure in Dutch literature was Joost van den Vondel (1587–1679), poet and playwright. Another noted poet and playwright was Constantijn Huygens (1596–1687), father of the scientist Christian. Popular for several centuries were the poems of Jacob Cats (1577–1660). Distinguished historians include Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) and Pieter Geyl (1887–1966). Anne Frank (b.Germany, 1929–45) became the most famous victim of the Holocaust with the publication of the diary and other material that she had written while hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam.

Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587–1630), greatest of Dutch empire builders, founded the city of Batavia in the Malay Archipelago (now Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia). Two Dutch naval heroes, Maarten Harpertszoon Tromp (1597–1653) and Michel Adriaanszoon de Ruyter (1607–76), led the Dutch nation in triumphs in sea wars with France, England, and Sweden. Peter Minuit (Minnewit, 1580–1638) founded the colonies of New Amsterdam (now New York City) and New Sweden (now Delaware). Peter Stuyvesant (1592–1672) took over New Sweden from the Swedish and lost New Netherland (now New York State) to the British.

Leading scientists include the mathematician Simon Stevinus (1548–1620); Christian Huygens (1629–95), mathematician, physicist, and astronomer; Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), developer of the microscope; Jan Swammerdam (1637–80), authority on insects; and Hermann Boerhaave (1668–1738), physician, botanist, and chemist. Among more recent scientists are a group of Nobel Prize winners: Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), authority on gases and fluids, who received the award in 1910; Jacobus Hendricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), chemistry, 1901; Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928) and Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943), who shared the 1902 award for physics; Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), physics, 1913; Christiaan Eijkman (1858–1930), physiology, 1929; Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debye (1884–1966), chemistry, 1936; Frits Zernike (1888–1966), physics, 1953; Jan Tinbergen (b.1903), economic science, 1969; Dutch-born Tjalling Koopmans (1910–85), who shared the 1975 prize for economic science; and Simon van der Meer (b.1925), cowinner of the physics prize in 1984. The 1911 Nobel Prize for peace was awarded to Tobias Michael Carel Asser (1838–1913).

The head of state since 1980 has been Queen Beatrix (b.1938).

The post office, telegraph, and telephone systems are operated by the government. The state's monopoly on postal services is confined to delivery of letters and postcards; about half of other deliveries are handled by private firms. In 1977, postal codes were introduced for addresses as part of a postal modernization program. As of 1999 there were 9.1 million main line telephones and 4 million mobile cellular phones in use. Significant improvements in the phone systems began in 2001 through the introduction of the third generation of the Global System for Mobile Communications.

There are several radio networks. The Netherlands Broadcasting Foundation, a joint foundation, maintains and makes available all studios, technical equipment, record and music libraries, orchestras, and other facilities. Broadcasting to other countries is carried on by the Netherlands World Broadcasting Service, which is managed by a board of governors appointed by the minister of cultural affairs. As of 1998 there are 4 AM and 58 FM stations. There were also about 21 television stations. Shortwave programs are transmitted in Dutch, Afrikaans, Arabic, English, French, Indonesian, Portuguese, and Spanish. Annual license fees are charged to radio and television set owners. Commercial advertising was introduced in 1967–68 and limited to fixed times before and after news broadcasts. In 2000, there were about 980 radios and 538 televisions for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were about 394 personal computers for every 1,000 people. About 52 Internet service providers served 8.7 million customers in 2001.

The Dutch were among the first to issue regular daily newspapers. The oldest newspaper, the Oprechte Haarlemsche Courant, was founded in 1656 and is published today as the Haarlemsche Courant. The Dutch press is largely a subscription press, depending for two-thirds of its income on advertising. Editorial boards, however, are usually completely independent of the commercial management.

Complete freedom of speech and press is guaranteed by the constitution, and the government is said to fully support free expression in practice.

As of 1996, there were more than three million personal computers; in 1998 there were 328 Internet hosts per 1,000 population.

The Netherlands possesses numerous and varied organizations. Learned societies include the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences, the Royal Antiquarian Society, the Netherlands Anthropological Society, the Historical Association, the Royal Netherlands Geographical Society, and similar bodies in the fields of botany, zoology, philology, mathematics, chemistry, and other sciences. The Royal Netherlands Association for the Advancement of Medicine, the General Netherlands Society for Social Medicine and Public Health, and the Netherlands Association for Psychiatry and Neurology are some of the organizations active in the field of medicine. The International Statistical Institute is based in the Netherlands.

In the arts, there are such groupings as the Society for the Preservation of Cultural and Natural Beauty in the Netherlands, the Society of Netherlands Literature, the St. Luke Association, the Society for the Advancement of Music, the Royal Netherlands Association of Musicians, and national societies of painters, sculptors, and architects. The Netherlands Center of the International Association of Playwrights, Editors, Essayists and Novelists (PEN), the Netherlands Branch of the International Law Association, and the Netherlands Foundation for International Cooperation are among the organizations active internationally in their fields.

Associations established on the basis of economic interests include the Federation of Netherlands Industries, the Netherlands Society for the Promotion of Industry and Commerce, the Federation of Christian Employers in the Netherlands, the National Bankers Association, and chambers of commerce in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and other cities.

National youth organizations include the Evangelical Students of the Netherlands, Dutch United Nations Student Association, Youth Organization for Freedom and Democracy, The Netherlands Scouting Association, and YMCA/YWCA. There are a numerous sports associations for all ages. Women's organizations include Netherlands Association for Women's Interests, Women's Work and Equal Citizenship and the Netherlands Council of Women.

International organizations with national chapters include Amnesty International, Defence for Children International, Greenpeace International, and the Red Cross.

The Netherlands has rich library collections and has broad use of those materials. In 1997 there were 579 main public libraries with a combined collection of 41.5 million books.

The largest public library is the Royal Library at The Hague, which has about 2.7 million volumes and 7,000 manuscripts. Outstanding libraries are found in the universities: Amsterdam, with over 2.6 million volumes; Leiden, 2.7 million volumes; Utrecht, two million volumes; Groningen, 2.7 million volumes; and Erasmus of Rotterdam, 800,000 volumes. The technical universities at Delft, Wageningen, and Tilburg also have excellent collections. Libraries of importance are found in some provincial capitals, such as Hertogenbosch, Leeuwarden, Middelburg, and Maastricht. Also noteworthy are the International Institute of Social History at Amsterdam, which houses important collections of historical letters and documents, such as the Marx-Engels Archives; and the Institute of the Netherlands Economic-Historical Archive, which has its library in Amsterdam and its collection of old trade archives at the Hague.

Among Amsterdam's many museums, particularly outstanding are the Rijksmuseum (1800), the Stedelijk Museum (1895) with special collections of modern art, the Van Gogh Museum (1979), the Museum of the Royal Tropical Institute (1910) and the Jewish Historical Museum (1932). Among Amsterdam's newest museums are the Huis Marseille (1999), which has historic and modern photography exhibits, the hands-on New Metropolis Interactive Science and Technology Museum (1997), and the Tattso Museum (1996). The Boymans–Van Beuningen Museum in Rotterdam has older paintings as well as modern works and a fine collection of minor arts. The Hague's Mauritshuis and the Frans Hals Museum at Haarlem have world-renowned collections of old masters. Other collections of national interest are in the Central Museum in Utrecht, the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden, Teyler's Museum in Haarlem, and the Folklore Museum in Arnhem. In the past, the most important art museums were found mainly in the large population centers of western Holland, but there are now museums of interest in such provincial capitals as Groningen, Leeuwarden, Arnhem, and Maastricht. The government stimulates the spread of artistic culture by providing art objects on loan and by granting subsidies to a number of privately owned museums. There are dozens of museums dedicated to the work of individual Dutch artists.

During World War II, more than 25% of Holland's two million dwellings were damaged: 95,000 dwellings were completely destroyed, 55,000 were seriously damaged, and 520,000 were slightly damaged. The housing shortage remained acute until 1950, when an accelerated program of housing construction began, and in 1953 the government decided to increase the house-building program to a level of 65,000 dwellings a year. Since then, the production rate has far exceeded both the prewar rate and yearly forecasts. From 1945 to 1985, nearly four million dwellings were built. In 1985 alone, 98,131 dwellings were built, bringing the total housing stock to 5,384,100 units by the end of the year. Most of the new units were subsidized by the national government. Subsidies are granted to municipalities, building societies, and housing associations, which generally build low-income multiple dwellings. Government regulations, which are considerable, are laid down in the Housing Act of 1965 and the Rental Act of 1979.

In 2000, the number of dwellings was at about 6,588,000, with an average of 2.3 residents per dwelling. The number of residents per dwelling has nearly halved since WWII. Approximately 90,000 new dwellings were constructed in 1996, down from 94,000 in 1995, and 98,000 in 1985. Of these, 75% were one-family houses; 69% were owner-occupied and 31% were rented.

The government determines on an annual basis the scope of the construction program. On the basis of national estimates, each municipality is allocated a permissible volume of construction. Within this allocation, the municipalities must follow certain guidelines; central government approval is required for all construction projects exceeding a specific cost. All construction must conform to technical and aesthetic requirements, as established by the government.

The present Dutch education system has its origins in the Batavian Republic which was constituted after the French Revolution. The role of education gained importance in the Civil and Constitutional Regulations of 1789, and the first legislation on education was passed in 1801. After 1848, the municipalities, supported by state funds, were responsible for managing the schools. Private schools were not originally supported by the government. However, after 1917, private and state schools received equal state funding. As of 1999, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.9% of GDP.

Illiteracy is virtually nonexistent in the Netherlands. School attendance between the ages of 5 and 18 is compulsory. Apart from play groups and crèches (which do not come under the Ministry of Education), there are no schools for children below the age of four. Children may, however, attend primary school from the age of four. Secondary school is comprised of three types: (1) general secondary school, with two options, the four-year junior general secondary school (MAVO) and the five-year senior general secondary school (HAVO); (2) preuniversity—the athenaeum and the gymnasium—both lasting for six years, prepares the children for university education; and (3) vocational secondary school is of three kinds—junior (LBO), senior (MBO) and higher (HBO).

Special education is provided to children with physical, mental, or social disabilities at special primary and secondary schools. Whenever possible, these children are later transferred into mainstream schools for continued education.

Facilities have been opened in various municipalities for adult education. Open schools and open universities have also been introduced. Vocational and university education is provided at the eight universities and five institutes (Hogescholen), which are equivalent to universities. These are funded entirely by the government. There are also seven theological colleges.

In 1997, there were 7,287 primary schools with 84,900 staff and 1,230,987 students. At the secondary level in the same year, there were 69,000 teachers and 1,415,712 students. As of 1999, virtually 100% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 92% of those eligible attended secondary school. All institutions of higher learning had a combined enrollment of 468,970 students in 1997.

A widespread system of social insurance and assistance is in effect. All residents are provided with old-age and survivorship benefits. Disability pensions are available to all employees, self-employed workers, students, and those disabled since childhood. Unemployment, accidents, illness, and disability are covered by insurance, which is compulsory for most employees and voluntary for self-employed persons. Maternity grants and full insurance for the worker's family are also provided, as are family allowances for children. Women receive 16 weeks of maternity leave with full pay. Exceptional medical expenses are covered for all residents.

Legislation mandates equal pay for equal work and prohibits dismissal due to marriage, pregnancy, or motherhood. However, cultural factors and lack of day care discourages women from employment. Many women work in part-time positions and are underemployed, and on average women earn less than men. Domestic violence is a problem, especially among ethnic minorities. The government provides programs to reduce and prevent violence against women.

Human rights are fully respected in the Netherlands. There were incidents of discrimination against religious minorities and some immigrant groups.